Scientists overcome hurdles to stem cell alternatives
By Rob Stein
Washington Post Staff Writer
Thursday, September 30, 2010; 8:43 PM
Scientists have invented an efficient way to produce apparently safe alternatives to human embryonic stem cells without destroying embryos, a long-sought step toward bypassing the moral morass surrounding one of the most promising fields in medicine.
A team of researchers at the Harvard Stem Cell Institute in Boston published a series of experiments Thursday showing that synthetic biological signals can quickly reprogram ordinary skin cells into entities that appear virtually identical to embryonic stem cells. Moreover, the same strategy can then turn those cells into ones that could be used for transplants.
"This is going to be very exciting to the research community," said Derrick J. Rossi of the Children's Hospital Boston, who led the research published in the journal Cell Stem Cell. "We now have an experimental paradigm for generating patient-specific cells highly efficiently and safely and also taking those cells to clinically useful cell types."
Scientists hope stem cells will lead to cures for diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, spinal cord injuries, heart attacks and many other ailments because they can turn into almost any tissue in the body, potentially providing an invaluable source of cells to replace those damaged by disease or injury. But the cells can only be obtained by destroying days-old embryos.
The cells produced by the Harvard team, known as induced pluripotent stem cells or iPS cells, would avoid that ethical objection and could in some ways be superior to embryonic stem cells. For example, iPS cells could enable scientists to take an easily obtainable skin cell from any patient and use it to create perfectly matched cells, tissue and potentially even entire organs for transplants that would be immune to rejection.
'Game changer'
While cautioning that the work needed to be repeated elsewhere and explored further, other researchers said the technique appeared to represent a major development in the promising field of "regenerative medicine," which aims to create treatments tailored to individual patients.
"All I can say is 'wow' - this is a game changer," said Robert Lanza, a stem cell researcher at Advanced Cell Technology in Worcester, Mass. "It would solve some of the most important problems in the field." The results were so striking that the Harvard Stem Cell Institute where Rossi works had already ordered every scientist working on iPS cells to switch to the new process.
"This paper is a major paper, in my view, in the field of regenerative medicine," said Douglas A. Melton, a leading stem cell researcher who co-directs the institute.
The announcement comes as the future of federal funding for embryonic stem cell research hangs in doubt. A federal judge stunned the field Aug. 23 by ruling that the Obama administration's more permissive policy for funding the research violated a federal law barring taxpayer dollars from being used for studies that involve destroying human embryos. An appeals court Tuesday let the funding continue until the case is resolved.
Opponents of human embryonic stem cell research seized on the development as the most convincing evidence yet that the morally questionable cells were unnecessary.
"With each new study it becomes more and more implausible to claim that scientists must rely on destruction of human embryos to achieve rapid progress in regenerative medicine," said Richard M. Doerflinger of the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops.
Rossi and other researchers, however, said that embryonic stem cells were still crucial because, among other things, they remained irreplaceable for evaluating alternatives.
"The new report provides a substantial advance," said National Institutes of Health Director Francis S. Collins. "But this research in no way reduces the importance of comparing the resulting iPS cells to human embryonic stem cells. Previous research has shown that iPS cells retain some memory of their tissue of origin, which may have important implications for their use in therapeutics. To explore these important potential differences, iPS research must continue to be conducted side by side with human embryonic cell research."
In 2006, researchers discovered that they could coax adult cells into a state that appeared identical to embryonic stem cells and then, just like embryonic stem cells, morph these iPS cells into various tissue. But the process involved inserting genes into cells using retroviruses, which raised the risk the cells could cause cancer. Since then, scientists have been trying to develop safer methods. Several approaches using chemicals or other types of viruses have shown promise. But none has eliminated the safety concerns, and most have been slow and balky.
Cell conversion
The new approach involves molecules known as "messenger RNA" (mRNA), which cells use to create proteins they need carry out vital functions. Working in the laboratory, the researchers created mRNA molecules carrying the instructions for the cell's machinery to produce the four key proteins needed to reprogram into iPS cells.
After tinkering with the mRNA molecules to make signals that the cells would not destroy as dangerous invaders, the researchers found that a daily cocktail of their creations was remarkably fast and efficient at reprogramming the cells. The technique converted the cells in about half the time of previous methods--only about 17 days--with surprising economy--up to 100 times more efficient that the standard approach. "We ended up with so many colonies of cells all over the place that we had to stop the experiment," Rossi said.
Moreover, the cells had not experienced any disturbing changes in their DNA caused by previous methods and appeared much more indistinguishable from embryonic stem cells than iPS cells created using other methods. In addition, the researchers went one step further and showed that they could use the strategy to quickly and easily convert the iPS cells they created into a specific cell types - in this case muscle cells.
"If you put all these things together, several of the major hurdles towards clinical translation of iPS cells are addressed by this technology," Rossi said. "That's what we've very excited about." Others agreed. Lanza, for example, called the approach "almost too good to be true," saying it evoked the magical alchemy of "turning lead into gold." "The ability to safely and efficiently generate patient-specific cells has the potential to transform transplantation medicine," Lanza said.
In an e-mail, stem cell pioneer Shinya Yamanaka of Kyoto University in Japan, who helped discover iPS cells, said he planned to immediately try the technique in his lab. "The standard method to generate [iPS cells] for clinical applications has yet to be established," Yamanaka wrote. "I think this method has the potential for it."
Rossi said the approach should also be useful far beyond stem cells by offering a way to treat any genetic condition in which a protein is missing, deficient or defective.
"It has amazing potential in the therapeutic realm," Rossi said.
Thursday, September 30, 2010
Wednesday, September 29, 2010
Found: A Planet Like Earth
Time Magazine - September 29, 2010
Michael D. Lemonick
The star known as Gliese 581 is utterly unremarkable in just about every way you can imagine. It's a red dwarf, the most common type of star in the Milky Way, weighing in at about a third the mass of the Sun. At 20 light years or so away, it's relatively nearby, but not close enough to set any records (it's the 117th closest star to Earth, for what that's worth). You can't even see it without a telescope, so while it lies in direction of Libra, it isn't one of the shining dots you'd connect to form the constellation. It's no wonder that the star's name lacks even a whiff of mystery or romance.
But Gliese 581 does have one distinction — and that's enough to make it the focus of intense scientific attention. At last count, astronomers had identified more than 400 planets orbiting stars beyond the Sun, and Gliese 581 was host to no fewer than four of them — the most populous solar system we know of, aside than our own. That alone would make the star intriguing. But on Wednesday, a team of astronomers announced they'd found two more planets circling the star, bringing the total to six. And one of them, assigned the name Gliese 581g, may be of truly historic significance. (See an illustrated history of Planet Earth.)
For one thing, the planet is only about three or four times as massive as our home world, meaning it probably has a solid surface just like Earth. Much more important, it sits smack in the middle of the so-called habitable zone, orbiting at just the right distance from the star to let water remain liquid rather than freezing solid or boiling away. As far as we know, that's a minimum requirement for the presence of life. For thousands of years, philosophers and scientists have wondered whether other Earths existed out in the cosmos. And since the first, very un-Eearthlike extrasolar planet was discovered in 1995, astronomers have been inching closer to answering that question. Now, they've evidently succeeded (although to be clear, there's no way at this point to determine whether there actually is life on the new planet).
"We're pretty excited about it," admits Steve Vogt, of the University of California, Santa Cruz, a member of the team, in a masterpiece of understatement. "I think this is what everyone's been after for the past 15 years." (See the top 50 space moments since Sputnik.)
Planetary scientist James Kasting, of Penn State University, who wasn't involved with the discovery, agrees. "I think they've scooped the Kepler people," he says. Kasting refers to the Kepler space telescope, launched into space early last year on a mission to determine how common Earthlike planets might be. The "Kepler people" have a number of candidate Earths in the can, but are still working to confirm them. (See pictures of Earth from space.)
Being first isn't the main reason Vogt is excited, however. "Someone had to be first," he says. "But this is right next door to us. That's the big result." What's particularly big about it is a matter of simple arithmetic. With only 116 stars closer to Earth than this one, it was hardly a sure thing that so small a sample group would produce two habitable planets, including Earth. And two such planets may be an undercount, Vogt says, since just nine out of those 100-plus stars have been studied in any detail. Indeed, one of Gliese 581g's sister planets, known as Gliese 581d (OK, they truly don't put a lot of creative energy into naming these things) could conceivably be a habitable world itself.
One of the four planets known to orbit Gliese 581 before the latest discovery, 581d was found by a team of Swiss astronomers in 2007 and was thought to be outside the habitable zone, and thus too cold for liquid water. But a reanalysis last year brought it into the zone, albeit just barely. The problem is, Gliese 581d is also too big to be Earthlike; it's probably made mostly of nonwater ice, like Neptune and Uranus, which makes a poorer candidate for life than 581g.
Lost in the excitement over possible life on the new world is what a remarkable achievement its mere discovery was. Detecting a planet this small is monstrously hard—and would have been impossible when Vogt and co-discoverer Paul Butler, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington first got into the planet-hunting game in the early 1990s. The instruments you use to detect tiny back-and-forth motions in the star — motions caused by the orbiting planet's gravitational tugs, which are often the only way to infer that the worlds exist at all—simply weren't sensitive enough. Since then, though, says Vogt, "I've been busting my gut to improve the instruments, and Paul has been busting his got to do the observations." In all, those observations span more than 200 nights on the giant Keck I telescope in Hawaii over 11 years, supplemented by observations from the Geneva group — and that painstaking work finally confirmed 581g's existence.
None of this proves that there actually is water on Gliese 581g. "Those are things we just have to speculate about," says Vogt. But he goes on to point out that there's water pretty much everywhere else you look. "There's water on Earth," he says, "and on the Moon, and Mars, and on Jupiter's moon Europa and Saturn's moon Enceladus, and in interstellar space. There's enough water produced in the Orion Nebula every 24 seconds to fill the Earth's oceans."
It's not hard to imagine, in other words, that Gliese 581g might have plenty of water as well. "It could have quite a good ocean," Vogt says. Certainly, it could still be a sterile, non-biological ocean. But unlike any planet found until now, there's nothing to rule out the idea that could also be teeming with life.
Read more: http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2022489,00.html?hpt=T2#ixzz10y6BNV3G
Michael D. Lemonick
The star known as Gliese 581 is utterly unremarkable in just about every way you can imagine. It's a red dwarf, the most common type of star in the Milky Way, weighing in at about a third the mass of the Sun. At 20 light years or so away, it's relatively nearby, but not close enough to set any records (it's the 117th closest star to Earth, for what that's worth). You can't even see it without a telescope, so while it lies in direction of Libra, it isn't one of the shining dots you'd connect to form the constellation. It's no wonder that the star's name lacks even a whiff of mystery or romance.
But Gliese 581 does have one distinction — and that's enough to make it the focus of intense scientific attention. At last count, astronomers had identified more than 400 planets orbiting stars beyond the Sun, and Gliese 581 was host to no fewer than four of them — the most populous solar system we know of, aside than our own. That alone would make the star intriguing. But on Wednesday, a team of astronomers announced they'd found two more planets circling the star, bringing the total to six. And one of them, assigned the name Gliese 581g, may be of truly historic significance. (See an illustrated history of Planet Earth.)
For one thing, the planet is only about three or four times as massive as our home world, meaning it probably has a solid surface just like Earth. Much more important, it sits smack in the middle of the so-called habitable zone, orbiting at just the right distance from the star to let water remain liquid rather than freezing solid or boiling away. As far as we know, that's a minimum requirement for the presence of life. For thousands of years, philosophers and scientists have wondered whether other Earths existed out in the cosmos. And since the first, very un-Eearthlike extrasolar planet was discovered in 1995, astronomers have been inching closer to answering that question. Now, they've evidently succeeded (although to be clear, there's no way at this point to determine whether there actually is life on the new planet).
"We're pretty excited about it," admits Steve Vogt, of the University of California, Santa Cruz, a member of the team, in a masterpiece of understatement. "I think this is what everyone's been after for the past 15 years." (See the top 50 space moments since Sputnik.)
Planetary scientist James Kasting, of Penn State University, who wasn't involved with the discovery, agrees. "I think they've scooped the Kepler people," he says. Kasting refers to the Kepler space telescope, launched into space early last year on a mission to determine how common Earthlike planets might be. The "Kepler people" have a number of candidate Earths in the can, but are still working to confirm them. (See pictures of Earth from space.)
Being first isn't the main reason Vogt is excited, however. "Someone had to be first," he says. "But this is right next door to us. That's the big result." What's particularly big about it is a matter of simple arithmetic. With only 116 stars closer to Earth than this one, it was hardly a sure thing that so small a sample group would produce two habitable planets, including Earth. And two such planets may be an undercount, Vogt says, since just nine out of those 100-plus stars have been studied in any detail. Indeed, one of Gliese 581g's sister planets, known as Gliese 581d (OK, they truly don't put a lot of creative energy into naming these things) could conceivably be a habitable world itself.
One of the four planets known to orbit Gliese 581 before the latest discovery, 581d was found by a team of Swiss astronomers in 2007 and was thought to be outside the habitable zone, and thus too cold for liquid water. But a reanalysis last year brought it into the zone, albeit just barely. The problem is, Gliese 581d is also too big to be Earthlike; it's probably made mostly of nonwater ice, like Neptune and Uranus, which makes a poorer candidate for life than 581g.
Lost in the excitement over possible life on the new world is what a remarkable achievement its mere discovery was. Detecting a planet this small is monstrously hard—and would have been impossible when Vogt and co-discoverer Paul Butler, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington first got into the planet-hunting game in the early 1990s. The instruments you use to detect tiny back-and-forth motions in the star — motions caused by the orbiting planet's gravitational tugs, which are often the only way to infer that the worlds exist at all—simply weren't sensitive enough. Since then, though, says Vogt, "I've been busting my gut to improve the instruments, and Paul has been busting his got to do the observations." In all, those observations span more than 200 nights on the giant Keck I telescope in Hawaii over 11 years, supplemented by observations from the Geneva group — and that painstaking work finally confirmed 581g's existence.
None of this proves that there actually is water on Gliese 581g. "Those are things we just have to speculate about," says Vogt. But he goes on to point out that there's water pretty much everywhere else you look. "There's water on Earth," he says, "and on the Moon, and Mars, and on Jupiter's moon Europa and Saturn's moon Enceladus, and in interstellar space. There's enough water produced in the Orion Nebula every 24 seconds to fill the Earth's oceans."
It's not hard to imagine, in other words, that Gliese 581g might have plenty of water as well. "It could have quite a good ocean," Vogt says. Certainly, it could still be a sterile, non-biological ocean. But unlike any planet found until now, there's nothing to rule out the idea that could also be teeming with life.
Read more: http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2022489,00.html?hpt=T2#ixzz10y6BNV3G
Saturday, September 25, 2010
UFO Malmstrom AFB Montana 1967
Former Air Force Officers: UFOs Tampered With Nuclear Missiles
Lee Speigel Contributor
AOL News
(Sept. 25, 2010) -- Former U.S. Air Force officers and a former enlisted man are about to break many years of silence about an alarming series of UFO encounters at nuclear weapons sites -- incidents officially kept secret for decades.
When the group appears at a press conference at the National Press Club in Washington, D.C., on Monday, it will offer testimony about events so chilling, it will seem like a day at a science fiction movie festival.
To put you in the mood for the stories that will soon unfold, we're presenting one here, involving former Air Force Capt. Robert Salas, one of the hosts of the Washington event.
Former Air Force Capt. Robert Salas says he was involved in a 1967 incident at Malmstrom Air Force Base in Montana in which a UFO reportedly tampered with nuclear missiles.
Salas, co-author of "Faded Giant" (BookSurge Publishing), was a first lieutenant in 1967, serving as a missile-launch officer while stationed at Malmstrom Air Force Base in Montana. On March 16, 1967, Salas was 60 feet below ground working a 24-hour shift monitoring a launch-control center outfitted with 10 nuclear Minuteman missiles. "I got a call from the topside guard, telling me they were watching some strange lights flying around in the sky, making odd maneuvers. They didn't think they were airplanes because they were going very fast, turning on a dime and not making a bit of noise," Salas told AOL News.
"A few minutes later, he called back, this time screaming into the phone, scared to death, and he said, 'Sir, I'm looking out my front window and there is a glowing red oval-shaped object hovering right above the front gate, and I've got all the guards out here with their weapons drawn.' "
The guard told Salas the UFO was approximately 30 to 40 feet in diameter with a very bright, pulsating light. When the guard asked what they should do next, Salas' immediate response was that they had to do whatever was necessary to protect the nuclear missile area, "so basically, I was giving them permission to use whatever force they needed to use to keep anything out."
As Salas started to inform his duty partner and commander about what was going on 60 feet above them, something chilling happened. "All of a sudden, we started getting bells and whistles going off. As we looked at the display board in front of us, sure enough, the missiles began going into an unlaunchable, or no-go, mode. They couldn't be launched -- it went from green to red.
"We also had a couple of security violations, meaning there were lights indicating some kind of intrusion at the missile sites, where the missiles were actually located, about a mile or two away from the launch control facility." Salas said they immediately performed a system checklist to see what was wrong and to determine how it was possible that 10 nuclear missiles could suddenly be deactivated.
"We were getting mostly guidance and control systems failure, and when I called the guard again, he told me the UFO just left and took off at high speed. So I ordered the guards to go out to the missile sites, and while they were out there, they saw the object again at one of the launch facilities.
"It scared them to death again, and they actually lost radio contact while they were near the object and then they returned to the base. I later learned they never returned to security guard duty."
Salas said it was extraordinary that they lost so many missiles at the same time. Isolated mishaps had made a single missile go "unlaunchable," but never 10 at once. And never 10 at once during a UFO sighting. As a result of the incident, the missiles had to be fixed to get them all back into launch mode.
Interesting aftermath to the story: Salas returned to the base and was ordered to report to his squadron commander where he also met with a member of the Air Force Office of Special Investigations, or AFOSI. Salas first asked if what they had just been through was some sort of Air Force exercise, and says he was told "absolutely not."
"After we told them our recollection of the incident, the AFOSI captain wanted us to sign papers, saying we'd never talk about this and swear we wouldn't even talk to our wives or any of the other airmen on the base -- nobody.
"I felt a little weird about this because all of us who were launch officers had above top-secret clearance, and I asked, 'If this is classified, what's it classified as?' And he said, 'Secret,' and I said, 'Well, we've got above top secret -- why do we have to sign anymore papers?' "
But further information was denied Salas and his men. And what does he think would've happened to him had he gone to the press with the story? "If I went public with this while still in the service, I would've been in Leavenworth [maximum security federal prison], breaking stones into little pebbles."
In 1969, the Air Force ended Project Blue Book, its official program that investigated UFOs. And in 1985, the following information was included in a fact sheet distributed by Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, and this remains the official attitude about UFOs:
(1) No UFO reported, investigated and evaluated by the Air Force has ever given any indication of threat to our national security; (2) There has been no evidence submitted to or discovered by the Air Force that sightings categorized as "unidentified" represent technological developments or principles beyond the range of present-day scientific knowledge; and (3) There has been no evidence indicating that sightings categorized as "unidentified" are extraterrestrial vehicles.
That being said, Salas and his colleagues maintain that if enough military eyewitnesses come forward, it can be proved that there's more to UFOs than officials have led the public to believe.
After the extraordinary events at Malmstrom Air Force base where it appears a UFO may have been responsible for shutting down 10 nuclear missiles, Salas wonders if the military has any legal authority to command its subordinates not to talk about something this significant -- something that he maintains represents a technology not known today.
The UFO "had to somehow send a signal to penetrate 60 feet of earth and concrete and also to penetrate the cable system, which is triply shielded cables, and inject some kind of a signal into the system. That's fantastic."
So, why, after so many years of keeping quiet, are former military personnel coming forward to talk about their experiences, as Salas and his Air Force colleagues are doing on Monday? He says the people who will talk in Washington are "just the tip of the iceberg."
"I believe in the extraterrestrial hypothesis, and I think, in this instance, these objects were not constructed on planet Earth."
Lee Speigel Contributor
AOL News
(Sept. 25, 2010) -- Former U.S. Air Force officers and a former enlisted man are about to break many years of silence about an alarming series of UFO encounters at nuclear weapons sites -- incidents officially kept secret for decades.
When the group appears at a press conference at the National Press Club in Washington, D.C., on Monday, it will offer testimony about events so chilling, it will seem like a day at a science fiction movie festival.
To put you in the mood for the stories that will soon unfold, we're presenting one here, involving former Air Force Capt. Robert Salas, one of the hosts of the Washington event.
Former Air Force Capt. Robert Salas says he was involved in a 1967 incident at Malmstrom Air Force Base in Montana in which a UFO reportedly tampered with nuclear missiles.
Salas, co-author of "Faded Giant" (BookSurge Publishing), was a first lieutenant in 1967, serving as a missile-launch officer while stationed at Malmstrom Air Force Base in Montana. On March 16, 1967, Salas was 60 feet below ground working a 24-hour shift monitoring a launch-control center outfitted with 10 nuclear Minuteman missiles. "I got a call from the topside guard, telling me they were watching some strange lights flying around in the sky, making odd maneuvers. They didn't think they were airplanes because they were going very fast, turning on a dime and not making a bit of noise," Salas told AOL News.
"A few minutes later, he called back, this time screaming into the phone, scared to death, and he said, 'Sir, I'm looking out my front window and there is a glowing red oval-shaped object hovering right above the front gate, and I've got all the guards out here with their weapons drawn.' "
The guard told Salas the UFO was approximately 30 to 40 feet in diameter with a very bright, pulsating light. When the guard asked what they should do next, Salas' immediate response was that they had to do whatever was necessary to protect the nuclear missile area, "so basically, I was giving them permission to use whatever force they needed to use to keep anything out."
As Salas started to inform his duty partner and commander about what was going on 60 feet above them, something chilling happened. "All of a sudden, we started getting bells and whistles going off. As we looked at the display board in front of us, sure enough, the missiles began going into an unlaunchable, or no-go, mode. They couldn't be launched -- it went from green to red.
"We also had a couple of security violations, meaning there were lights indicating some kind of intrusion at the missile sites, where the missiles were actually located, about a mile or two away from the launch control facility." Salas said they immediately performed a system checklist to see what was wrong and to determine how it was possible that 10 nuclear missiles could suddenly be deactivated.
"We were getting mostly guidance and control systems failure, and when I called the guard again, he told me the UFO just left and took off at high speed. So I ordered the guards to go out to the missile sites, and while they were out there, they saw the object again at one of the launch facilities.
"It scared them to death again, and they actually lost radio contact while they were near the object and then they returned to the base. I later learned they never returned to security guard duty."
Salas said it was extraordinary that they lost so many missiles at the same time. Isolated mishaps had made a single missile go "unlaunchable," but never 10 at once. And never 10 at once during a UFO sighting. As a result of the incident, the missiles had to be fixed to get them all back into launch mode.
Interesting aftermath to the story: Salas returned to the base and was ordered to report to his squadron commander where he also met with a member of the Air Force Office of Special Investigations, or AFOSI. Salas first asked if what they had just been through was some sort of Air Force exercise, and says he was told "absolutely not."
"After we told them our recollection of the incident, the AFOSI captain wanted us to sign papers, saying we'd never talk about this and swear we wouldn't even talk to our wives or any of the other airmen on the base -- nobody.
"I felt a little weird about this because all of us who were launch officers had above top-secret clearance, and I asked, 'If this is classified, what's it classified as?' And he said, 'Secret,' and I said, 'Well, we've got above top secret -- why do we have to sign anymore papers?' "
But further information was denied Salas and his men. And what does he think would've happened to him had he gone to the press with the story? "If I went public with this while still in the service, I would've been in Leavenworth [maximum security federal prison], breaking stones into little pebbles."
In 1969, the Air Force ended Project Blue Book, its official program that investigated UFOs. And in 1985, the following information was included in a fact sheet distributed by Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, and this remains the official attitude about UFOs:
(1) No UFO reported, investigated and evaluated by the Air Force has ever given any indication of threat to our national security; (2) There has been no evidence submitted to or discovered by the Air Force that sightings categorized as "unidentified" represent technological developments or principles beyond the range of present-day scientific knowledge; and (3) There has been no evidence indicating that sightings categorized as "unidentified" are extraterrestrial vehicles.
That being said, Salas and his colleagues maintain that if enough military eyewitnesses come forward, it can be proved that there's more to UFOs than officials have led the public to believe.
After the extraordinary events at Malmstrom Air Force base where it appears a UFO may have been responsible for shutting down 10 nuclear missiles, Salas wonders if the military has any legal authority to command its subordinates not to talk about something this significant -- something that he maintains represents a technology not known today.
The UFO "had to somehow send a signal to penetrate 60 feet of earth and concrete and also to penetrate the cable system, which is triply shielded cables, and inject some kind of a signal into the system. That's fantastic."
So, why, after so many years of keeping quiet, are former military personnel coming forward to talk about their experiences, as Salas and his Air Force colleagues are doing on Monday? He says the people who will talk in Washington are "just the tip of the iceberg."
"I believe in the extraterrestrial hypothesis, and I think, in this instance, these objects were not constructed on planet Earth."
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